Anders Carlberg’s ”Mussolini Against Hitler: The Fate of the Jews in Fascist Italy” unveils a largely overlooked aspect of World War II history: Italy’s persistent resistance to Nazi Germany’s persecution and extermination of Jews. The book challenges the common perception of Italian complicity and reveals a surprisingly consistent, often courageous, effort by Italian officials and citizens to protect Jews within their sphere of influence, defying the escalating pressure and demands from their German allies.
The narrative begins in 1943 with SS officer Heinz Röthke’s frustrated observation of Jewish life thriving in Nice, a city then under Italian control. Röthke, tasked with deporting Jews from France, found his mission thwarted by the Italians’ refusal to cooperate with the Nazi’s racial policies. This anecdote highlights the fundamental difference between Italian and German fascism. While both ideologies embraced nationalism, anti-democratic sentiments, and a disdain for leftist politics, antisemitism was never a core tenet of Italian fascism. In fact, many Italian Jews were initially active participants in Mussolini’s movement. Though Italy later adopted discriminatory racial laws, Carlberg suggests this was primarily a political maneuver to appease Hitler, rather than a reflection of genuine Italian antisemitism. Mussolini himself reportedly dismissed the concept of race, highlighting the pragmatic, rather than ideological, nature of his approach.
Carlberg meticulously documents Italy’s stance toward Jews under fascism, drawing on often-overlooked research. He reveals a pattern of Italian defiance against German attempts to harass, arrest, and deport Jews from Italian-controlled territories, including areas in the Balkans, Greece, and France. This resistance took various forms, ranging from bureaucratic obstruction and delaying tactics to outright acts of protection. The Italian police frequently hampered German efforts, sometimes by creating logistical obstacles and sometimes by simply making themselves unavailable to receive official complaints. Italian diplomats, like the consul in Thessaloniki, issued protective passports to Jews, echoing the later efforts of Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest.
The book details how Italian authorities in Croatia established internment camps for Jews, but primarily to shield them from the Ustaše regime and the predatory actions of the Germans. These camps served as a protective measure, contrasting sharply with the extermination camps established by the Nazis. Carlberg’s research demonstrates that Italian officials consistently employed ingenious and adaptable strategies to thwart German intentions. Their actions often bordered on insubordination, demonstrating a remarkable level of commitment to protecting Jewish lives, even at the risk of jeopardizing the alliance with Germany.
The narrative underscores the stark contrast between the Italian approach and the enthusiastic collaboration of French authorities in the deportation of Jews. While the French police actively participated in rounding up and delivering Jews to the Nazis, Italian officials at various levels of authority risked their careers and potentially their lives to obstruct these efforts. Carlberg illustrates the remarkable courage displayed by individuals within the Italian military, police, and diplomatic corps who often acted independently, relying on their moral compass and resourcefulness to circumvent official orders and protect those targeted by the Nazi regime.
Carlberg’s account also reveals that the relative safety afforded to Jews under Italian control ended abruptly with Italy’s capitulation in September 1943. Once German forces assumed control, the machinery of the Holocaust was extended to formerly Italian-occupied territories. However, by this time, tens of thousands of Jews had found refuge, often aided by Italian civilians who provided shelter and resources. Despite the eventual tragedy that befell many European Jews, the Italian resistance, as documented by Carlberg, offers a poignant reminder of the capacity for human decency and courage even in the darkest of times. The book, written in a restrained and scholarly tone, nevertheless carries a powerful emotional resonance, illuminating a often-ignored chapter of World War II history and casting a ray of light on a period typically characterized by profound darkness. It challenges conventional narratives about Italian participation in the war and highlights the complex and often contradictory nature of human behavior under extreme circumstances.
